The political system of Pakistan has undergone several far-reaching changes since independence. In 1971 its turbulent politics culminated in the secession of its eastern region (having more than 54 percent of the total population at that time), which established itself as the independent state of Bangladesh. In the aftermath of that event, Pakistan (now reduced to what was previously West Pakistan) faced a number of political and economic problems and uncertainties about its future.
Several conflicts have left their mark on the politics of Pakistan. The first of these, initially obscured by the paraphernalia of a parliamentary form of government but later made manifest by overt seizure of power by men at the head of the military and bureaucratic establishment, was a continuing struggle between political leadership and a military-bureaucratic oligarchy for supremacy and authority in the state; ideologically, this struggle was expressed as a struggle for democracy. The military-bureaucratic oligarchy triumphed for a while and set up three military administrations, in 1958–69, 1969–71, and 1977–88.
A second and quite distinct conflict was a struggle between regional groups. Because it was directed against centralized authority, it merged with the democratic struggle. But its express aims were to secure greater regional representation in the bureaucratic and military establishment, especially in the higher echelons, and to achieve effective decentralization of powers within a federal governmental structure by emphasizing regional autonomy. This struggle manifested itself first in the civil war between East and West Pakistan in 1971–72. It also brought to a virtual standstill the working of the first civilian government after the 1977–88 military administration.
A third conflict concerned the allocation of economic resources and burdens and the distribution of a greater share of the benefits of development among the more deprived regions and strata of the population. This resulted in a number of violent confrontations between the less-privileged segments of society and the state. Some of these confrontations, such as those in 1969 and 1977, led to the fall of constitutional governments and the imposition of martial law.
A fourth conflict was between the landed interests that had dominated Pakistan's political and economic life for much of the country's history and the new urban interests that began to assert themselves in the late 1980s and the 1990s. One manifestation of this was the struggle between Punjab and the federal government in the late 1980s. Under the Islamic Democratic Alliance, the Punjab government continued to represent the interests of the landed aristocracy, while the government of Benazir Bhutto, with a more liberal bent and a wider support base, espoused the economic and social interests of urban groups and nonpropertied classes. The two governments often clashed in the late 1980s, creating serious economic management problems.
The task of framing a constitution was entrusted in 1947 to a Constituent Assembly that was also to function as the interim legislature under the 1935 Government of India Act, which was to be the interim constitution. Pakistan's first constitution was enacted by the Constituent Assembly in 1956. It followed the form of the 1935 act, allowing the president far-reaching powers to suspend federal and provincial parliamentary government. It also included the “parity formula,” by which representation in the National Assembly for East and West Pakistan would be decided on a parity, rather than population, basis. (A major factor in the political crisis of 1970–71 was abandonment of the “parity formula” and adoption of representation by population, giving East Pakistan an absolute majority in the National Assembly.) In 1958 the constitution was abrogated and martial law was instituted. A new constitution, promulgated in 1962, provided for the election of the president and national and provincial assemblies by an electoral college composed of members of local councils. Although a federal form of government was retained, the assemblies had little power, which was, in effect, centralized through the authority of governors acting under the president. In April 1973 Pakistan's third constitution was adopted by the National Assembly; it was suspended in 1977. In March 1981 a Provisional Constitutional Order was promulgated, providing a framework for government under martial law. Four years later a process was initiated for reinstating the constitution of 1973. By October 1985 a newly elected National Assembly had passed an amended constitution, giving extraordinary powers to the president, including the authority to appoint any member of the National Assembly as prime minister. With the end of military rule in 1988 and following elections to the National Assembly held in November of that year, the new president used these powers to appoint a prime minister to form a civilian government under the amended 1973 constitution.
The amended constitution provides for a president as head of state and a prime minister as head of government; both must be Muslims. The president is elected for a term of five years by the National Assembly, the Senate, and the four provincial assemblies. The prime minister is elected by the National Assembly. The president acts on the advice of the prime minister.
The National Assembly has 237 seats. Of these, 217 are filled by direct popular election; 207 are for Muslim candidates and 10 for non-Muslims. The remaining 20 seats are reserved for women who are chosen by the elected members. Members of the National Assembly serve five-year terms. The Senate has 87 members who are chosen by the provincial assemblies for six-year terms. One-third of the senators relinquish their seats every two years.